PERLREQUICK(1) Perl Programmers Reference Guide PERLREQUICK(1)
NAME
perlrequick - Perl regular expressions quick start
DESCRIPTION
This page covers the very basics of understanding, creating and using
regular expressions ('regexes') in Perl.
The Guide
Simple word matching
The simplest regex is simply a word, or more generally, a string of
characters. A regex consisting of a word matches any string that
contains that word:
"Hello World" =~ /World/; # matches
In this statement, "World" is a regex and the "//" enclosing "/World/"
tells Perl to search a string for a match. The operator "=~"
associates the string with the regex match and produces a true value if
the regex matched, or false if the regex did not match. In our case,
"World" matches the second word in "Hello World", so the expression is
true. This idea has several variations.
Expressions like this are useful in conditionals:
print "It matches\n" if "Hello World" =~ /World/;
The sense of the match can be reversed by using "!~" operator:
print "It doesn't match\n" if "Hello World" !~ /World/;
The literal string in the regex can be replaced by a variable:
$greeting = "World";
print "It matches\n" if "Hello World" =~ /$greeting/;
If you're matching against $_, the "$_ =~" part can be omitted:
$_ = "Hello World";
print "It matches\n" if /World/;
Finally, the "//" default delimiters for a match can be changed to
arbitrary delimiters by putting an 'm' out front:
"Hello World" =~ m!World!; # matches, delimited by '!'
"Hello World" =~ m{World}; # matches, note the matching '{}'
"/usr/bin/perl" =~ m"/perl"; # matches after '/usr/bin',
# '/' becomes an ordinary char
Regexes must match a part of the string exactly in order for the
statement to be true:
"Hello World" =~ /world/; # doesn't match, case sensitive
"Hello World" =~ /o W/; # matches, ' ' is an ordinary char
"Hello World" =~ /World /; # doesn't match, no ' ' at end
Perl will always match at the earliest possible point in the string:
"Hello World" =~ /o/; # matches 'o' in 'Hello'
"That hat is red" =~ /hat/; # matches 'hat' in 'That'
Not all characters can be used 'as is' in a match. Some characters,
called metacharacters, are reserved for use in regex notation. The
metacharacters are
{}[]()^$.|*+?\
A metacharacter can be matched by putting a backslash before it:
"2+2=4" =~ /2+2/; # doesn't match, + is a metacharacter
"2+2=4" =~ /2\+2/; # matches, \+ is treated like an ordinary +
'C:\WIN32' =~ /C:\\WIN/; # matches
"/usr/bin/perl" =~ /\/usr\/bin\/perl/; # matches
In the last regex, the forward slash '/' is also backslashed, because
it is used to delimit the regex.
Non-printable ASCII characters are represented by escape sequences.
Common examples are "\t" for a tab, "\n" for a newline, and "\r" for a
carriage return. Arbitrary bytes are represented by octal escape
sequences, e.g., "\033", or hexadecimal escape sequences, e.g., "\x1B":
"1000\t2000" =~ m(0\t2) # matches
"cat" =~ /\143\x61\x74/ # matches in ASCII, but a weird way to spell cat
Regexes are treated mostly as double-quoted strings, so variable
substitution works:
$foo = 'house';
'cathouse' =~ /cat$foo/; # matches
'housecat' =~ /${foo}cat/; # matches
With all of the regexes above, if the regex matched anywhere in the
string, it was considered a match. To specify where it should match,
we would use the anchor metacharacters "^" and "$". The anchor "^"
means match at the beginning of the string and the anchor "$" means
match at the end of the string, or before a newline at the end of the
string. Some examples:
"housekeeper" =~ /keeper/; # matches
"housekeeper" =~ /^keeper/; # doesn't match
"housekeeper" =~ /keeper$/; # matches
"housekeeper\n" =~ /keeper$/; # matches
"housekeeper" =~ /^housekeeper$/; # matches
Using character classes
A character class allows a set of possible characters, rather than just
a single character, to match at a particular point in a regex.
Character classes are denoted by brackets "[...]", with the set of
characters to be possibly matched inside. Here are some examples:
/cat/; # matches 'cat'
/[bcr]at/; # matches 'bat', 'cat', or 'rat'
"abc" =~ /[cab]/; # matches 'a'
In the last statement, even though 'c' is the first character in the
class, the earliest point at which the regex can match is 'a'.
/[yY][eE][sS]/; # match 'yes' in a case-insensitive way
# 'yes', 'Yes', 'YES', etc.
/yes/i; # also match 'yes' in a case-insensitive way
The last example shows a match with an 'i' modifier, which makes the
match case-insensitive.
Character classes also have ordinary and special characters, but the
sets of ordinary and special characters inside a character class are
different than those outside a character class. The special characters
for a character class are "-]\^$" and are matched using an escape:
/[\]c]def/; # matches ']def' or 'cdef'
$x = 'bcr';
/[$x]at/; # matches 'bat, 'cat', or 'rat'
/[\$x]at/; # matches '$at' or 'xat'
/[\\$x]at/; # matches '\at', 'bat, 'cat', or 'rat'
The special character '-' acts as a range operator within character
classes, so that the unwieldy "[0123456789]" and "[abc...xyz]" become
the svelte "[0-9]" and "[a-z]":
/item[0-9]/; # matches 'item0' or ... or 'item9'
/[0-9a-fA-F]/; # matches a hexadecimal digit
If '-' is the first or last character in a character class, it is
treated as an ordinary character.
The special character "^" in the first position of a character class
denotes a negated character class, which matches any character but
those in the brackets. Both "[...]" and "[^...]" must match a
character, or the match fails. Then
/[^a]at/; # doesn't match 'aat' or 'at', but matches
# all other 'bat', 'cat, '0at', '%at', etc.
/[^0-9]/; # matches a non-numeric character
/[a^]at/; # matches 'aat' or '^at'; here '^' is ordinary
Perl has several abbreviations for common character classes. (These
definitions are those that Perl uses in ASCII-safe mode with the "/a"
modifier. Otherwise they could match many more non-ASCII Unicode
characters as well. See "Backslash sequences" in perlrecharclass for
details.)
o \d is a digit and represents
[0-9]
o \s is a whitespace character and represents
[\ \t\r\n\f]
o \w is a word character (alphanumeric or _) and represents
[0-9a-zA-Z_]
o \D is a negated \d; it represents any character but a digit
[^0-9]
o \S is a negated \s; it represents any non-whitespace character
[^\s]
o \W is a negated \w; it represents any non-word character
[^\w]
o The period '.' matches any character but "\n"
The "\d\s\w\D\S\W" abbreviations can be used both inside and outside of
character classes. Here are some in use:
/\d\d:\d\d:\d\d/; # matches a hh:mm:ss time format
/[\d\s]/; # matches any digit or whitespace character
/\w\W\w/; # matches a word char, followed by a
# non-word char, followed by a word char
/..rt/; # matches any two chars, followed by 'rt'
/end\./; # matches 'end.'
/end[.]/; # same thing, matches 'end.'
The word anchor "\b" matches a boundary between a word character and a
non-word character "\w\W" or "\W\w":
$x = "Housecat catenates house and cat";
$x =~ /\bcat/; # matches cat in 'catenates'
$x =~ /cat\b/; # matches cat in 'housecat'
$x =~ /\bcat\b/; # matches 'cat' at end of string
In the last example, the end of the string is considered a word
boundary.
Matching this or that
We can match different character strings with the alternation
metacharacter '|'. To match "dog" or "cat", we form the regex
"dog|cat". As before, Perl will try to match the regex at the earliest
possible point in the string. At each character position, Perl will
first try to match the first alternative, "dog". If "dog" doesn't
match, Perl will then try the next alternative, "cat". If "cat"
doesn't match either, then the match fails and Perl moves to the next
position in the string. Some examples:
"cats and dogs" =~ /cat|dog|bird/; # matches "cat"
"cats and dogs" =~ /dog|cat|bird/; # matches "cat"
Even though "dog" is the first alternative in the second regex, "cat"
is able to match earlier in the string.
"cats" =~ /c|ca|cat|cats/; # matches "c"
"cats" =~ /cats|cat|ca|c/; # matches "cats"
At a given character position, the first alternative that allows the
regex match to succeed will be the one that matches. Here, all the
alternatives match at the first string position, so the first matches.
Grouping things and hierarchical matching
The grouping metacharacters "()" allow a part of a regex to be treated
as a single unit. Parts of a regex are grouped by enclosing them in
parentheses. The regex "house(cat|keeper)" means match "house"
followed by either "cat" or "keeper". Some more examples are
/(a|b)b/; # matches 'ab' or 'bb'
/(^a|b)c/; # matches 'ac' at start of string or 'bc' anywhere
/house(cat|)/; # matches either 'housecat' or 'house'
/house(cat(s|)|)/; # matches either 'housecats' or 'housecat' or
# 'house'. Note groups can be nested.
"20" =~ /(19|20|)\d\d/; # matches the null alternative '()\d\d',
# because '20\d\d' can't match
Extracting matches
The grouping metacharacters "()" also allow the extraction of the parts
of a string that matched. For each grouping, the part that matched
inside goes into the special variables $1, $2, etc. They can be used
just as ordinary variables:
# extract hours, minutes, seconds
$time =~ /(\d\d):(\d\d):(\d\d)/; # match hh:mm:ss format
$hours = $1;
$minutes = $2;
$seconds = $3;
In list context, a match "/regex/" with groupings will return the list
of matched values "($1,$2,...)". So we could rewrite it as
($hours, $minutes, $second) = ($time =~ /(\d\d):(\d\d):(\d\d)/);
If the groupings in a regex are nested, $1 gets the group with the
leftmost opening parenthesis, $2 the next opening parenthesis, etc.
For example, here is a complex regex and the matching variables
indicated below it:
/(ab(cd|ef)((gi)|j))/;
1 2 34
Associated with the matching variables $1, $2, ... are the
backreferences "\g1", "\g2", ... Backreferences are matching variables
that can be used inside a regex:
/(\w\w\w)\s\g1/; # find sequences like 'the the' in string
$1, $2, ... should only be used outside of a regex, and "\g1", "\g2",
... only inside a regex.
Matching repetitions
The quantifier metacharacters "?", "*", "+", and "{}" allow us to
determine the number of repeats of a portion of a regex we consider to
be a match. Quantifiers are put immediately after the character,
character class, or grouping that we want to specify. They have the
following meanings:
o "a?" = match 'a' 1 or 0 times
o "a*" = match 'a' 0 or more times, i.e., any number of times
o "a+" = match 'a' 1 or more times, i.e., at least once
o "a{n,m}" = match at least "n" times, but not more than "m" times.
o "a{n,}" = match at least "n" or more times
o "a{n}" = match exactly "n" times
Here are some examples:
/[a-z]+\s+\d*/; # match a lowercase word, at least some space, and
# any number of digits
/(\w+)\s+\g1/; # match doubled words of arbitrary length
$year =~ /^\d{2,4}$/; # make sure year is at least 2 but not more
# than 4 digits
$year =~ /^\d{4}$|^\d{2}$/; # better match; throw out 3 digit dates
These quantifiers will try to match as much of the string as possible,
while still allowing the regex to match. So we have
$x = 'the cat in the hat';
$x =~ /^(.*)(at)(.*)$/; # matches,
# $1 = 'the cat in the h'
# $2 = 'at'
# $3 = '' (0 matches)
The first quantifier ".*" grabs as much of the string as possible while
still having the regex match. The second quantifier ".*" has no string
left to it, so it matches 0 times.
More matching
There are a few more things you might want to know about matching
operators. The global modifier "//g" allows the matching operator to
match within a string as many times as possible. In scalar context,
successive matches against a string will have "//g" jump from match to
match, keeping track of position in the string as it goes along. You
can get or set the position with the "pos()" function. For example,
$x = "cat dog house"; # 3 words
while ($x =~ /(\w+)/g) {
print "Word is $1, ends at position ", pos $x, "\n";
}
prints
Word is cat, ends at position 3
Word is dog, ends at position 7
Word is house, ends at position 13
A failed match or changing the target string resets the position. If
you don't want the position reset after failure to match, add the
"//c", as in "/regex/gc".
In list context, "//g" returns a list of matched groupings, or if there
are no groupings, a list of matches to the whole regex. So
@words = ($x =~ /(\w+)/g); # matches,
# $word[0] = 'cat'
# $word[1] = 'dog'
# $word[2] = 'house'
Search and replace
Search and replace is performed using "s/regex/replacement/modifiers".
The "replacement" is a Perl double-quoted string that replaces in the
string whatever is matched with the "regex". The operator "=~" is also
used here to associate a string with "s///". If matching against $_,
the "$_ =~" can be dropped. If there is a match, "s///" returns the
number of substitutions made; otherwise it returns false. Here are a
few examples:
$x = "Time to feed the cat!";
$x =~ s/cat/hacker/; # $x contains "Time to feed the hacker!"
$y = "'quoted words'";
$y =~ s/^'(.*)'$/$1/; # strip single quotes,
# $y contains "quoted words"
With the "s///" operator, the matched variables $1, $2, etc. are
immediately available for use in the replacement expression. With the
global modifier, "s///g" will search and replace all occurrences of the
regex in the string:
$x = "I batted 4 for 4";
$x =~ s/4/four/; # $x contains "I batted four for 4"
$x = "I batted 4 for 4";
$x =~ s/4/four/g; # $x contains "I batted four for four"
The non-destructive modifier "s///r" causes the result of the
substitution to be returned instead of modifying $_ (or whatever
variable the substitute was bound to with "=~"):
$x = "I like dogs.";
$y = $x =~ s/dogs/cats/r;
print "$x $y\n"; # prints "I like dogs. I like cats."
$x = "Cats are great.";
print $x =~ s/Cats/Dogs/r =~ s/Dogs/Frogs/r =~ s/Frogs/Hedgehogs/r, "\n";
# prints "Hedgehogs are great."
@foo = map { s/[a-z]/X/r } qw(a b c 1 2 3);
# @foo is now qw(X X X 1 2 3)
The evaluation modifier "s///e" wraps an "eval{...}" around the
replacement string and the evaluated result is substituted for the
matched substring. Some examples:
# reverse all the words in a string
$x = "the cat in the hat";
$x =~ s/(\w+)/reverse $1/ge; # $x contains "eht tac ni eht tah"
# convert percentage to decimal
$x = "A 39% hit rate";
$x =~ s!(\d+)%!$1/100!e; # $x contains "A 0.39 hit rate"
The last example shows that "s///" can use other delimiters, such as
"s!!!" and "s{}{}", and even "s{}//". If single quotes are used
"s'''", then the regex and replacement are treated as single-quoted
strings.
The split operator
"split /regex/, string" splits "string" into a list of substrings and
returns that list. The regex determines the character sequence that
"string" is split with respect to. For example, to split a string into
words, use
$x = "Calvin and Hobbes";
@word = split /\s+/, $x; # $word[0] = 'Calvin'
# $word[1] = 'and'
# $word[2] = 'Hobbes'
To extract a comma-delimited list of numbers, use
$x = "1.618,2.718, 3.142";
@const = split /,\s*/, $x; # $const[0] = '1.618'
# $const[1] = '2.718'
# $const[2] = '3.142'
If the empty regex "//" is used, the string is split into individual
characters. If the regex has groupings, then the list produced
contains the matched substrings from the groupings as well:
$x = "/usr/bin";
@parts = split m!(/)!, $x; # $parts[0] = ''
# $parts[1] = '/'
# $parts[2] = 'usr'
# $parts[3] = '/'
# $parts[4] = 'bin'
Since the first character of $x matched the regex, "split" prepended an
empty initial element to the list.
BUGS
None.
SEE ALSO
This is just a quick start guide. For a more in-depth tutorial on
regexes, see perlretut and for the reference page, see perlre.
AUTHOR AND COPYRIGHT
Copyright (c) 2000 Mark Kvale All rights reserved.
This document may be distributed under the same terms as Perl itself.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank Mark-Jason Dominus, Tom Christiansen,
Ilya Zakharevich, Brad Hughes, and Mike Giroux for all their helpful
comments.
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