GIT-SHOW(1) Git Manual GIT-SHOW(1)
NAME
git-show - Show various types of objects
SYNOPSIS
git show [<options>] [<object>...]
DESCRIPTION
Shows one or more objects (blobs, trees, tags and commits).
For commits it shows the log message and textual diff. It also presents
the merge commit in a special format as produced by git diff-tree --cc.
For tags, it shows the tag message and the referenced objects.
For trees, it shows the names (equivalent to git ls-tree with
--name-only).
For plain blobs, it shows the plain contents.
Some options that git log command understands can be used to control
how the changes the commit introduces are shown.
This manual page describes only the most frequently used options.
OPTIONS
<object>...
The names of objects to show (defaults to HEAD). For a more
complete list of ways to spell object names, see "SPECIFYING
REVISIONS" section in gitrevisions(7).
--pretty[=<format>], --format=<format>
Pretty-print the contents of the commit logs in a given format,
where <format> can be one of oneline, short, medium, full, fuller,
reference, email, raw, format:<string> and tformat:<string>. When
<format> is none of the above, and has %placeholder in it, it acts
as if --pretty=tformat:<format> were given.
See the "PRETTY FORMATS" section for some additional details for
each format. When =<format> part is omitted, it defaults to medium.
Note: you can specify the default pretty format in the repository
configuration (see git-config(1)).
--abbrev-commit
Instead of showing the full 40-byte hexadecimal commit object name,
show a prefix that names the object uniquely. "--abbrev=<n>" (which
also modifies diff output, if it is displayed) option can be used
to specify the minimum length of the prefix.
This should make "--pretty=oneline" a whole lot more readable for
people using 80-column terminals.
--no-abbrev-commit
Show the full 40-byte hexadecimal commit object name. This negates
--abbrev-commit, either explicit or implied by other options such
as "--oneline". It also overrides the log.abbrevCommit variable.
--oneline
This is a shorthand for "--pretty=oneline --abbrev-commit" used
together.
--encoding=<encoding>
Commit objects record the character encoding used for the log
message in their encoding header; this option can be used to tell
the command to re-code the commit log message in the encoding
preferred by the user. For non plumbing commands this defaults to
UTF-8. Note that if an object claims to be encoded in X and we are
outputting in X, we will output the object verbatim; this means
that invalid sequences in the original commit may be copied to the
output. Likewise, if iconv(3) fails to convert the commit, we will
quietly output the original object verbatim.
--expand-tabs=<n>, --expand-tabs, --no-expand-tabs
Perform a tab expansion (replace each tab with enough spaces to
fill to the next display column that is a multiple of <n>) in the
log message before showing it in the output. --expand-tabs is a
short-hand for --expand-tabs=8, and --no-expand-tabs is a
short-hand for --expand-tabs=0, which disables tab expansion.
By default, tabs are expanded in pretty formats that indent the log
message by 4 spaces (i.e. medium, which is the default, full, and
fuller).
--notes[=<ref>]
Show the notes (see git-notes(1)) that annotate the commit, when
showing the commit log message. This is the default for git log,
git show and git whatchanged commands when there is no --pretty,
--format, or --oneline option given on the command line.
By default, the notes shown are from the notes refs listed in the
core.notesRef and notes.displayRef variables (or corresponding
environment overrides). See git-config(1) for more details.
With an optional <ref> argument, use the ref to find the notes to
display. The ref can specify the full refname when it begins with
refs/notes/; when it begins with notes/, refs/ and otherwise
refs/notes/ is prefixed to form the full name of the ref.
Multiple --notes options can be combined to control which notes are
being displayed. Examples: "--notes=foo" will show only notes from
"refs/notes/foo"; "--notes=foo --notes" will show both notes from
"refs/notes/foo" and from the default notes ref(s).
--no-notes
Do not show notes. This negates the above --notes option, by
resetting the list of notes refs from which notes are shown.
Options are parsed in the order given on the command line, so e.g.
"--notes --notes=foo --no-notes --notes=bar" will only show notes
from "refs/notes/bar".
--show-notes-by-default
Show the default notes unless options for displaying specific notes
are given.
--show-notes[=<ref>], --[no-]standard-notes
These options are deprecated. Use the above --notes/--no-notes
options instead.
--show-signature
Check the validity of a signed commit object by passing the
signature to gpg --verify and show the output.
PRETTY FORMATS
If the commit is a merge, and if the pretty-format is not oneline,
email or raw, an additional line is inserted before the Author: line.
This line begins with "Merge: " and the hashes of ancestral commits are
printed, separated by spaces. Note that the listed commits may not
necessarily be the list of the direct parent commits if you have
limited your view of history: for example, if you are only interested
in changes related to a certain directory or file.
There are several built-in formats, and you can define additional
formats by setting a pretty.<name> config option to either another
format name, or a format: string, as described below (see git-
config(1)). Here are the details of the built-in formats:
o oneline
<hash> <title-line>
This is designed to be as compact as possible.
o short
commit <hash>
Author: <author>
<title-line>
o medium
commit <hash>
Author: <author>
Date: <author-date>
<title-line>
<full-commit-message>
o full
commit <hash>
Author: <author>
Commit: <committer>
<title-line>
<full-commit-message>
o fuller
commit <hash>
Author: <author>
AuthorDate: <author-date>
Commit: <committer>
CommitDate: <committer-date>
<title-line>
<full-commit-message>
o reference
<abbrev-hash> (<title-line>, <short-author-date>)
This format is used to refer to another commit in a commit message
and is the same as --pretty='format:%C(auto)%h (%s, %ad)'. By
default, the date is formatted with --date=short unless another
--date option is explicitly specified. As with any format: with
format placeholders, its output is not affected by other options
like --decorate and --walk-reflogs.
o email
From <hash> <date>
From: <author>
Date: <author-date>
Subject: [PATCH] <title-line>
<full-commit-message>
o mboxrd
Like email, but lines in the commit message starting with "From "
(preceded by zero or more ">") are quoted with ">" so they aren't
confused as starting a new commit.
o raw
The raw format shows the entire commit exactly as stored in the
commit object. Notably, the hashes are displayed in full,
regardless of whether --abbrev or --no-abbrev are used, and parents
information show the true parent commits, without taking grafts or
history simplification into account. Note that this format affects
the way commits are displayed, but not the way the diff is shown
e.g. with git log --raw. To get full object names in a raw diff
format, use --no-abbrev.
o format:<format-string>
The format:<format-string> format allows you to specify which
information you want to show. It works a little bit like printf
format, with the notable exception that you get a newline with %n
instead of \n.
E.g, format:"The author of %h was %an, %ar%nThe title was >>%s<<%n"
would show something like this:
The author of fe6e0ee was Junio C Hamano, 23 hours ago
The title was >>t4119: test autocomputing -p<n> for traditional diff input.<<
The placeholders are:
o Placeholders that expand to a single literal character:
%n
newline
%%
a raw %
%x00
%x followed by two hexadecimal digits is replaced with a
byte with the hexadecimal digits' value (we will call this
"literal formatting code" in the rest of this document).
o Placeholders that affect formatting of later placeholders:
%Cred
switch color to red
%Cgreen
switch color to green
%Cblue
switch color to blue
%Creset
reset color
%C(...)
color specification, as described under Values in the
"CONFIGURATION FILE" section of git-config(1). By default,
colors are shown only when enabled for log output (by
color.diff, color.ui, or --color, and respecting the auto
settings of the former if we are going to a terminal).
%C(auto,...) is accepted as a historical synonym for the
default (e.g., %C(auto,red)). Specifying %C(always,...)
will show the colors even when color is not otherwise
enabled (though consider just using --color=always to
enable color for the whole output, including this format
and anything else git might color). auto alone (i.e.
%C(auto)) will turn on auto coloring on the next
placeholders until the color is switched again.
%m
left (<), right (>) or boundary (-) mark
%w([<w>[,<i1>[,<i2>]]])
switch line wrapping, like the -w option of git-
shortlog(1).
%<( <N> [,trunc|ltrunc|mtrunc])
make the next placeholder take at least N column widths,
padding spaces on the right if necessary. Optionally
truncate (with ellipsis ..) at the left (ltrunc) ..ft, the
middle (mtrunc) mi..le, or the end (trunc) rig.., if the
output is longer than N columns. Note 1: that truncating
only works correctly with N >= 2. Note 2: spaces around the
N and M (see below) values are optional. Note 3: Emojis and
other wide characters will take two display columns, which
may over-run column boundaries. Note 4: decomposed
character combining marks may be misplaced at padding
boundaries.
%<|( <M> )
make the next placeholder take at least until Mth display
column, padding spaces on the right if necessary. Use
negative M values for column positions measured from the
right hand edge of the terminal window.
%>( <N> ), %>|( <M> )
similar to %<( <N> ), %<|( <M> ) respectively, but padding
spaces on the left
%>>( <N> ), %>>|( <M> )
similar to %>( <N> ), %>|( <M> ) respectively, except that
if the next placeholder takes more spaces than given and
there are spaces on its left, use those spaces
%><( <N> ), %><|( <M> )
similar to %<( <N> ), %<|( <M> ) respectively, but padding
both sides (i.e. the text is centered)
o Placeholders that expand to information extracted from the
commit:
%H
commit hash
%h
abbreviated commit hash
%T
tree hash
%t
abbreviated tree hash
%P
parent hashes
%p
abbreviated parent hashes
%an
author name
%aN
author name (respecting .mailmap, see git-shortlog(1) or
git-blame(1))
%ae
author email
%aE
author email (respecting .mailmap, see git-shortlog(1) or
git-blame(1))
%al
author email local-part (the part before the @ sign)
%aL
author local-part (see %al) respecting .mailmap, see git-
shortlog(1) or git-blame(1))
%ad
author date (format respects --date= option)
%aD
author date, RFC2822 style
%ar
author date, relative
%at
author date, UNIX timestamp
%ai
author date, ISO 8601-like format
%aI
author date, strict ISO 8601 format
%as
author date, short format (YYYY-MM-DD)
%ah
author date, human style (like the --date=human option of
git-rev-list(1))
%cn
committer name
%cN
committer name (respecting .mailmap, see git-shortlog(1) or
git-blame(1))
%ce
committer email
%cE
committer email (respecting .mailmap, see git-shortlog(1)
or git-blame(1))
%cl
committer email local-part (the part before the @ sign)
%cL
committer local-part (see %cl) respecting .mailmap, see
git-shortlog(1) or git-blame(1))
%cd
committer date (format respects --date= option)
%cD
committer date, RFC2822 style
%cr
committer date, relative
%ct
committer date, UNIX timestamp
%ci
committer date, ISO 8601-like format
%cI
committer date, strict ISO 8601 format
%cs
committer date, short format (YYYY-MM-DD)
%ch
committer date, human style (like the --date=human option
of git-rev-list(1))
%d
ref names, like the --decorate option of git-log(1)
%D
ref names without the " (", ")" wrapping.
%(decorate[:<options>])
ref names with custom decorations. The decorate string may
be followed by a colon and zero or more comma-separated
options. Option values may contain literal formatting
codes. These must be used for commas (%x2C) and closing
parentheses (%x29), due to their role in the option syntax.
o prefix=<value>: Shown before the list of ref names.
Defaults to " (".
o suffix=<value>: Shown after the list of ref names.
Defaults to ")".
o separator=<value>: Shown between ref names. Defaults to
", ".
o pointer=<value>: Shown between HEAD and the branch it
points to, if any. Defaults to " -> ".
o tag=<value>: Shown before tag names. Defaults to
"tag: ".
For example, to produce decorations with no wrapping or tag
annotations, and spaces as separators:
%(decorate:prefix=,suffix=,tag=,separator= )
%(describe[:<options>])
human-readable name, like git-describe(1); empty string for
undescribable commits. The describe string may be followed
by a colon and zero or more comma-separated options.
Descriptions can be inconsistent when tags are added or
removed at the same time.
o tags[=<bool-value>]: Instead of only considering
annotated tags, consider lightweight tags as well.
o abbrev=<number>: Instead of using the default number of
hexadecimal digits (which will vary according to the
number of objects in the repository with a default of
7) of the abbreviated object name, use <number> digits,
or as many digits as needed to form a unique object
name.
o match=<pattern>: Only consider tags matching the given
glob(7) pattern, excluding the "refs/tags/" prefix.
o exclude=<pattern>: Do not consider tags matching the
given glob(7) pattern, excluding the "refs/tags/"
prefix.
%S
ref name given on the command line by which the commit was
reached (like git log --source), only works with git log
%e
encoding
%s
subject
%f
sanitized subject line, suitable for a filename
%b
body
%B
raw body (unwrapped subject and body)
%N
commit notes
%GG
raw verification message from GPG for a signed commit
%G?
show "G" for a good (valid) signature, "B" for a bad
signature, "U" for a good signature with unknown validity,
"X" for a good signature that has expired, "Y" for a good
signature made by an expired key, "R" for a good signature
made by a revoked key, "E" if the signature cannot be
checked (e.g. missing key) and "N" for no signature
%GS
show the name of the signer for a signed commit
%GK
show the key used to sign a signed commit
%GF
show the fingerprint of the key used to sign a signed
commit
%GP
show the fingerprint of the primary key whose subkey was
used to sign a signed commit
%GT
show the trust level for the key used to sign a signed
commit
%gD
reflog selector, e.g., refs/stash@{1} or refs/stash@{2
minutes ago}; the format follows the rules described for
the -g option. The portion before the @ is the refname as
given on the command line (so git log -g refs/heads/master
would yield refs/heads/master@{0}).
%gd
shortened reflog selector; same as %gD, but the refname
portion is shortened for human readability (so
refs/heads/master becomes just master).
%gn
reflog identity name
%gN
reflog identity name (respecting .mailmap, see git-
shortlog(1) or git-blame(1))
%ge
reflog identity email
%gE
reflog identity email (respecting .mailmap, see git-
shortlog(1) or git-blame(1))
%gs
reflog subject
%(trailers[:<options>])
display the trailers of the body as interpreted by git-
interpret-trailers(1). The trailers string may be followed
by a colon and zero or more comma-separated options. If any
option is provided multiple times, the last occurrence
wins.
o key=<key>: only show trailers with specified <key>.
Matching is done case-insensitively and trailing colon
is optional. If option is given multiple times trailer
lines matching any of the keys are shown. This option
automatically enables the only option so that
non-trailer lines in the trailer block are hidden. If
that is not desired it can be disabled with only=false.
E.g., %(trailers:key=Reviewed-by) shows trailer lines
with key Reviewed-by.
o only[=<bool>]: select whether non-trailer lines from
the trailer block should be included.
o separator=<sep>: specify a separator inserted between
trailer lines. When this option is not given each
trailer line is terminated with a line feed character.
The string <sep> may contain the literal formatting
codes described above. To use comma as separator one
must use %x2C as it would otherwise be parsed as next
option. E.g., %(trailers:key=Ticket,separator=%x2C )
shows all trailer lines whose key is "Ticket" separated
by a comma and a space.
o unfold[=<bool>]: make it behave as if
interpret-trailer's --unfold option was given. E.g.,
%(trailers:only,unfold=true) unfolds and shows all
trailer lines.
o keyonly[=<bool>]: only show the key part of the
trailer.
o valueonly[=<bool>]: only show the value part of the
trailer.
o key_value_separator=<sep>: specify a separator inserted
between trailer lines. When this option is not given
each trailer key-value pair is separated by ": ".
Otherwise it shares the same semantics as
separator=<sep> above.
Note
Some placeholders may depend on other options given to the revision
traversal engine. For example, the %g* reflog options will insert
an empty string unless we are traversing reflog entries (e.g., by
git log -g). The %d and %D placeholders will use the "short"
decoration format if --decorate was not already provided on the
command line.
The boolean options accept an optional value [=<bool-value>]. The
values true, false, on, off etc. are all accepted. See the "boolean"
sub-section in "EXAMPLES" in git-config(1). If a boolean option is
given with no value, it's enabled.
If you add a + (plus sign) after % of a placeholder, a line-feed is
inserted immediately before the expansion if and only if the
placeholder expands to a non-empty string.
If you add a - (minus sign) after % of a placeholder, all consecutive
line-feeds immediately preceding the expansion are deleted if and only
if the placeholder expands to an empty string.
If you add a ` ` (space) after % of a placeholder, a space is inserted
immediately before the expansion if and only if the placeholder expands
to a non-empty string.
o tformat:
The tformat: format works exactly like format:, except that it
provides "terminator" semantics instead of "separator" semantics.
In other words, each commit has the message terminator character
(usually a newline) appended, rather than a separator placed
between entries. This means that the final entry of a single-line
format will be properly terminated with a new line, just as the
"oneline" format does. For example:
$ git log -2 --pretty=format:%h 4da45bef \
| perl -pe '$_ .= " -- NO NEWLINE\n" unless /\n/'
4da45be
7134973 -- NO NEWLINE
$ git log -2 --pretty=tformat:%h 4da45bef \
| perl -pe '$_ .= " -- NO NEWLINE\n" unless /\n/'
4da45be
7134973
In addition, any unrecognized string that has a % in it is
interpreted as if it has tformat: in front of it. For example,
these two are equivalent:
$ git log -2 --pretty=tformat:%h 4da45bef
$ git log -2 --pretty=%h 4da45bef
DIFF FORMATTING
The options below can be used to change the way git show generates diff
output.
-p, -u, --patch
Generate patch (see the section called "GENERATING PATCH TEXT WITH
-P").
-s, --no-patch
Suppress all output from the diff machinery. Useful for commands
like git show that show the patch by default to squelch their
output, or to cancel the effect of options like --patch, --stat
earlier on the command line in an alias.
-m
Show diffs for merge commits in the default format. This is similar
to --diff-merges=on, except -m will produce no output unless -p is
given as well.
-c
Produce combined diff output for merge commits. Shortcut for
--diff-merges=combined -p.
--cc
Produce dense combined diff output for merge commits. Shortcut for
--diff-merges=dense-combined -p.
--dd
Produce diff with respect to first parent for both merge and
regular commits. Shortcut for --diff-merges=first-parent -p.
--remerge-diff
Produce remerge-diff output for merge commits. Shortcut for
--diff-merges=remerge -p.
--no-diff-merges
Synonym for --diff-merges=off.
--diff-merges=<format>
Specify diff format to be used for merge commits. Default is
dense-combined unless --first-parent is in use, in which case
first-parent is the default.
The following formats are supported:
off, none
Disable output of diffs for merge commits. Useful to override
implied value.
on, m
Make diff output for merge commits to be shown in the default
format. The default format can be changed using log.diffMerges
configuration variable, whose default value is separate.
first-parent, 1
Show full diff with respect to first parent. This is the same
format as --patch produces for non-merge commits.
separate
Show full diff with respect to each of parents. Separate log
entry and diff is generated for each parent.
combined, c
Show differences from each of the parents to the merge result
simultaneously instead of showing pairwise diff between a
parent and the result one at a time. Furthermore, it lists only
files which were modified from all parents.
dense-combined, cc
Further compress output produced by --diff-merges=combined by
omitting uninteresting hunks whose contents in the parents have
only two variants and the merge result picks one of them
without modification.
remerge, r
Remerge two-parent merge commits to create a temporary tree
object--potentially containing files with conflict markers and
such. A diff is then shown between that temporary tree and the
actual merge commit.
The output emitted when this option is used is subject to
change, and so is its interaction with other options (unless
explicitly documented).
--combined-all-paths
This flag causes combined diffs (used for merge commits) to list
the name of the file from all parents. It thus only has effect when
--diff-merges=[dense-]combined is in use, and is likely only useful
if filename changes are detected (i.e. when either rename or copy
detection have been requested).
-U<n>, --unified=<n>
Generate diffs with <n> lines of context instead of the usual
three. Implies --patch.
--output=<file>
Output to a specific file instead of stdout.
--output-indicator-new=<char>, --output-indicator-old=<char>,
--output-indicator-context=<char>
Specify the character used to indicate new, old or context lines in
the generated patch. Normally they are +, - and ' ' respectively.
--raw
For each commit, show a summary of changes using the raw diff
format. See the "RAW OUTPUT FORMAT" section of git-diff(1). This is
different from showing the log itself in raw format, which you can
achieve with --format=raw.
--patch-with-raw
Synonym for -p --raw.
-t
Show the tree objects in the diff output.
--indent-heuristic
Enable the heuristic that shifts diff hunk boundaries to make
patches easier to read. This is the default.
--no-indent-heuristic
Disable the indent heuristic.
--minimal
Spend extra time to make sure the smallest possible diff is
produced.
--patience
Generate a diff using the "patience diff" algorithm.
--histogram
Generate a diff using the "histogram diff" algorithm.
--anchored=<text>
Generate a diff using the "anchored diff" algorithm.
This option may be specified more than once.
If a line exists in both the source and destination, exists only
once, and starts with this text, this algorithm attempts to prevent
it from appearing as a deletion or addition in the output. It uses
the "patience diff" algorithm internally.
--diff-algorithm={patience|minimal|histogram|myers}
Choose a diff algorithm. The variants are as follows:
default, myers
The basic greedy diff algorithm. Currently, this is the
default.
minimal
Spend extra time to make sure the smallest possible diff is
produced.
patience
Use "patience diff" algorithm when generating patches.
histogram
This algorithm extends the patience algorithm to "support
low-occurrence common elements".
For instance, if you configured the diff.algorithm variable to a
non-default value and want to use the default one, then you have to
use --diff-algorithm=default option.
--stat[=<width>[,<name-width>[,<count>]]]
Generate a diffstat. By default, as much space as necessary will be
used for the filename part, and the rest for the graph part.
Maximum width defaults to terminal width, or 80 columns if not
connected to a terminal, and can be overridden by <width>. The
width of the filename part can be limited by giving another width
<name-width> after a comma or by setting
diff.statNameWidth=<width>. The width of the graph part can be
limited by using --stat-graph-width=<width> or by setting
diff.statGraphWidth=<width>. Using --stat or --stat-graph-width
affects all commands generating a stat graph, while setting
diff.statNameWidth or diff.statGraphWidth does not affect git
format-patch. By giving a third parameter <count>, you can limit
the output to the first <count> lines, followed by ... if there
are more.
These parameters can also be set individually with
--stat-width=<width>, --stat-name-width=<name-width> and
--stat-count=<count>.
--compact-summary
Output a condensed summary of extended header information such as
file creations or deletions ("new" or "gone", optionally "+l" if
it's a symlink) and mode changes ("+x" or "-x" for adding or
removing executable bit respectively) in diffstat. The information
is put between the filename part and the graph part. Implies
--stat.
--numstat
Similar to --stat, but shows number of added and deleted lines in
decimal notation and pathname without abbreviation, to make it more
machine friendly. For binary files, outputs two - instead of saying
0 0.
--shortstat
Output only the last line of the --stat format containing total
number of modified files, as well as number of added and deleted
lines.
-X[<param1,param2,...>], --dirstat[=<param1,param2,...>]
Output the distribution of relative amount of changes for each
sub-directory. The behavior of --dirstat can be customized by
passing it a comma separated list of parameters. The defaults are
controlled by the diff.dirstat configuration variable (see git-
config(1)). The following parameters are available:
changes
Compute the dirstat numbers by counting the lines that have
been removed from the source, or added to the destination. This
ignores the amount of pure code movements within a file. In
other words, rearranging lines in a file is not counted as much
as other changes. This is the default behavior when no
parameter is given.
lines
Compute the dirstat numbers by doing the regular line-based
diff analysis, and summing the removed/added line counts. (For
binary files, count 64-byte chunks instead, since binary files
have no natural concept of lines). This is a more expensive
--dirstat behavior than the changes behavior, but it does count
rearranged lines within a file as much as other changes. The
resulting output is consistent with what you get from the other
--*stat options.
files
Compute the dirstat numbers by counting the number of files
changed. Each changed file counts equally in the dirstat
analysis. This is the computationally cheapest --dirstat
behavior, since it does not have to look at the file contents
at all.
cumulative
Count changes in a child directory for the parent directory as
well. Note that when using cumulative, the sum of the
percentages reported may exceed 100%. The default
(non-cumulative) behavior can be specified with the
noncumulative parameter.
<limit>
An integer parameter specifies a cut-off percent (3% by
default). Directories contributing less than this percentage of
the changes are not shown in the output.
Example: The following will count changed files, while ignoring
directories with less than 10% of the total amount of changed
files, and accumulating child directory counts in the parent
directories: --dirstat=files,10,cumulative.
--cumulative
Synonym for --dirstat=cumulative
--dirstat-by-file[=<param1,param2>...]
Synonym for --dirstat=files,param1,param2...
--summary
Output a condensed summary of extended header information such as
creations, renames and mode changes.
--patch-with-stat
Synonym for -p --stat.
-z
Separate the commits with NULs instead of newlines.
Also, when --raw or --numstat has been given, do not munge
pathnames and use NULs as output field terminators.
Without this option, pathnames with "unusual" characters are quoted
as explained for the configuration variable core.quotePath (see
git-config(1)).
--name-only
Show only names of changed files. The file names are often encoded
in UTF-8. For more information see the discussion about encoding in
the git-log(1) manual page.
--name-status
Show only names and status of changed files. See the description of
the --diff-filter option on what the status letters mean. Just like
--name-only the file names are often encoded in UTF-8.
--submodule[=<format>]
Specify how differences in submodules are shown. When specifying
--submodule=short the short format is used. This format just shows
the names of the commits at the beginning and end of the range.
When --submodule or --submodule=log is specified, the log format is
used. This format lists the commits in the range like git-
submodule(1) summary does. When --submodule=diff is specified, the
diff format is used. This format shows an inline diff of the
changes in the submodule contents between the commit range.
Defaults to diff.submodule or the short format if the config option
is unset.
--color[=<when>]
Show colored diff. --color (i.e. without =<when>) is the same as
--color=always. <when> can be one of always, never, or auto.
--no-color
Turn off colored diff. It is the same as --color=never.
--color-moved[=<mode>]
Moved lines of code are colored differently. The <mode> defaults to
no if the option is not given and to zebra if the option with no
mode is given. The mode must be one of:
no
Moved lines are not highlighted.
default
Is a synonym for zebra. This may change to a more sensible mode
in the future.
plain
Any line that is added in one location and was removed in
another location will be colored with color.diff.newMoved.
Similarly color.diff.oldMoved will be used for removed lines
that are added somewhere else in the diff. This mode picks up
any moved line, but it is not very useful in a review to
determine if a block of code was moved without permutation.
blocks
Blocks of moved text of at least 20 alphanumeric characters are
detected greedily. The detected blocks are painted using either
the color.diff.{old,new}Moved color. Adjacent blocks cannot be
told apart.
zebra
Blocks of moved text are detected as in blocks mode. The blocks
are painted using either the color.diff.{old,new}Moved color or
color.diff.{old,new}MovedAlternative. The change between the
two colors indicates that a new block was detected.
dimmed-zebra
Similar to zebra, but additional dimming of uninteresting parts
of moved code is performed. The bordering lines of two adjacent
blocks are considered interesting, the rest is uninteresting.
dimmed_zebra is a deprecated synonym.
--no-color-moved
Turn off move detection. This can be used to override configuration
settings. It is the same as --color-moved=no.
--color-moved-ws=<modes>
This configures how whitespace is ignored when performing the move
detection for --color-moved. These modes can be given as a comma
separated list:
no
Do not ignore whitespace when performing move detection.
ignore-space-at-eol
Ignore changes in whitespace at EOL.
ignore-space-change
Ignore changes in amount of whitespace. This ignores whitespace
at line end, and considers all other sequences of one or more
whitespace characters to be equivalent.
ignore-all-space
Ignore whitespace when comparing lines. This ignores
differences even if one line has whitespace where the other
line has none.
allow-indentation-change
Initially ignore any whitespace in the move detection, then
group the moved code blocks only into a block if the change in
whitespace is the same per line. This is incompatible with the
other modes.
--no-color-moved-ws
Do not ignore whitespace when performing move detection. This can
be used to override configuration settings. It is the same as
--color-moved-ws=no.
--word-diff[=<mode>]
Show a word diff, using the <mode> to delimit changed words. By
default, words are delimited by whitespace; see --word-diff-regex
below. The <mode> defaults to plain, and must be one of:
color
Highlight changed words using only colors. Implies --color.
plain
Show words as [-removed-] and {+added+}. Makes no attempts to
escape the delimiters if they appear in the input, so the
output may be ambiguous.
porcelain
Use a special line-based format intended for script
consumption. Added/removed/unchanged runs are printed in the
usual unified diff format, starting with a +/-/` ` character at
the beginning of the line and extending to the end of the line.
Newlines in the input are represented by a tilde ~ on a line of
its own.
none
Disable word diff again.
Note that despite the name of the first mode, color is used to
highlight the changed parts in all modes if enabled.
--word-diff-regex=<regex>
Use <regex> to decide what a word is, instead of considering runs
of non-whitespace to be a word. Also implies --word-diff unless it
was already enabled.
Every non-overlapping match of the <regex> is considered a word.
Anything between these matches is considered whitespace and
ignored(!) for the purposes of finding differences. You may want to
append |[^[:space:]] to your regular expression to make sure that
it matches all non-whitespace characters. A match that contains a
newline is silently truncated(!) at the newline.
For example, --word-diff-regex=. will treat each character as a
word and, correspondingly, show differences character by character.
The regex can also be set via a diff driver or configuration
option, see gitattributes(5) or git-config(1). Giving it explicitly
overrides any diff driver or configuration setting. Diff drivers
override configuration settings.
--color-words[=<regex>]
Equivalent to --word-diff=color plus (if a regex was specified)
--word-diff-regex=<regex>.
--no-renames
Turn off rename detection, even when the configuration file gives
the default to do so.
--[no-]rename-empty
Whether to use empty blobs as rename source.
--check
Warn if changes introduce conflict markers or whitespace errors.
What are considered whitespace errors is controlled by
core.whitespace configuration. By default, trailing whitespaces
(including lines that consist solely of whitespaces) and a space
character that is immediately followed by a tab character inside
the initial indent of the line are considered whitespace errors.
Exits with non-zero status if problems are found. Not compatible
with --exit-code.
--ws-error-highlight=<kind>
Highlight whitespace errors in the context, old or new lines of the
diff. Multiple values are separated by comma, none resets previous
values, default reset the list to new and all is a shorthand for
old,new,context. When this option is not given, and the
configuration variable diff.wsErrorHighlight is not set, only
whitespace errors in new lines are highlighted. The whitespace
errors are colored with color.diff.whitespace.
--full-index
Instead of the first handful of characters, show the full pre- and
post-image blob object names on the "index" line when generating
patch format output.
--binary
In addition to --full-index, output a binary diff that can be
applied with git-apply. Implies --patch.
--abbrev[=<n>]
Instead of showing the full 40-byte hexadecimal object name in
diff-raw format output and diff-tree header lines, show the
shortest prefix that is at least <n> hexdigits long that uniquely
refers the object. In diff-patch output format, --full-index takes
higher precedence, i.e. if --full-index is specified, full blob
names will be shown regardless of --abbrev. Non default number of
digits can be specified with --abbrev=<n>.
-B[<n>][/<m>], --break-rewrites[=[<n>][/<m>]]
Break complete rewrite changes into pairs of delete and create.
This serves two purposes:
It affects the way a change that amounts to a total rewrite of a
file not as a series of deletion and insertion mixed together with
a very few lines that happen to match textually as the context, but
as a single deletion of everything old followed by a single
insertion of everything new, and the number m controls this aspect
of the -B option (defaults to 60%). -B/70% specifies that less
than 30% of the original should remain in the result for Git to
consider it a total rewrite (i.e. otherwise the resulting patch
will be a series of deletion and insertion mixed together with
context lines).
When used with -M, a totally-rewritten file is also considered as
the source of a rename (usually -M only considers a file that
disappeared as the source of a rename), and the number n controls
this aspect of the -B option (defaults to 50%). -B20% specifies
that a change with addition and deletion compared to 20% or more of
the file's size are eligible for being picked up as a possible
source of a rename to another file.
-M[<n>], --find-renames[=<n>]
If generating diffs, detect and report renames for each commit. For
following files across renames while traversing history, see
--follow. If n is specified, it is a threshold on the similarity
index (i.e. amount of addition/deletions compared to the file's
size). For example, -M90% means Git should consider a delete/add
pair to be a rename if more than 90% of the file hasn't changed.
Without a % sign, the number is to be read as a fraction, with a
decimal point before it. I.e., -M5 becomes 0.5, and is thus the
same as -M50%. Similarly, -M05 is the same as -M5%. To limit
detection to exact renames, use -M100%. The default similarity
index is 50%.
-C[<n>], --find-copies[=<n>]
Detect copies as well as renames. See also --find-copies-harder. If
n is specified, it has the same meaning as for -M<n>.
--find-copies-harder
For performance reasons, by default, -C option finds copies only if
the original file of the copy was modified in the same changeset.
This flag makes the command inspect unmodified files as candidates
for the source of copy. This is a very expensive operation for
large projects, so use it with caution. Giving more than one -C
option has the same effect.
-D, --irreversible-delete
Omit the preimage for deletes, i.e. print only the header but not
the diff between the preimage and /dev/null. The resulting patch is
not meant to be applied with patch or git apply; this is solely for
people who want to just concentrate on reviewing the text after the
change. In addition, the output obviously lacks enough information
to apply such a patch in reverse, even manually, hence the name of
the option.
When used together with -B, omit also the preimage in the deletion
part of a delete/create pair.
-l<num>
The -M and -C options involve some preliminary steps that can
detect subsets of renames/copies cheaply, followed by an exhaustive
fallback portion that compares all remaining unpaired destinations
to all relevant sources. (For renames, only remaining unpaired
sources are relevant; for copies, all original sources are
relevant.) For N sources and destinations, this exhaustive check is
O(N^2). This option prevents the exhaustive portion of rename/copy
detection from running if the number of source/destination files
involved exceeds the specified number. Defaults to
diff.renameLimit. Note that a value of 0 is treated as unlimited.
--diff-filter=[(A|C|D|M|R|T|U|X|B)...[*]]
Select only files that are Added (A), Copied (C), Deleted (D),
Modified (M), Renamed (R), have their type (i.e. regular file,
symlink, submodule, ...) changed (T), are Unmerged (U), are Unknown
(X), or have had their pairing Broken (B). Any combination of the
filter characters (including none) can be used. When *
(All-or-none) is added to the combination, all paths are selected
if there is any file that matches other criteria in the comparison;
if there is no file that matches other criteria, nothing is
selected.
Also, these upper-case letters can be downcased to exclude. E.g.
--diff-filter=ad excludes added and deleted paths.
Note that not all diffs can feature all types. For instance, copied
and renamed entries cannot appear if detection for those types is
disabled.
-S<string>
Look for differences that change the number of occurrences of the
specified string (i.e. addition/deletion) in a file. Intended for
the scripter's use.
It is useful when you're looking for an exact block of code (like a
struct), and want to know the history of that block since it first
came into being: use the feature iteratively to feed the
interesting block in the preimage back into -S, and keep going
until you get the very first version of the block.
Binary files are searched as well.
-G<regex>
Look for differences whose patch text contains added/removed lines
that match <regex>.
To illustrate the difference between -S<regex> --pickaxe-regex and
-G<regex>, consider a commit with the following diff in the same
file:
+ return frotz(nitfol, two->ptr, 1, 0);
...
- hit = frotz(nitfol, mf2.ptr, 1, 0);
While git log -G"frotz\(nitfol" will show this commit, git log
-S"frotz\(nitfol" --pickaxe-regex will not (because the number of
occurrences of that string did not change).
Unless --text is supplied patches of binary files without a
textconv filter will be ignored.
See the pickaxe entry in gitdiffcore(7) for more information.
--find-object=<object-id>
Look for differences that change the number of occurrences of the
specified object. Similar to -S, just the argument is different in
that it doesn't search for a specific string but for a specific
object id.
The object can be a blob or a submodule commit. It implies the -t
option in git-log to also find trees.
--pickaxe-all
When -S or -G finds a change, show all the changes in that
changeset, not just the files that contain the change in <string>.
--pickaxe-regex
Treat the <string> given to -S as an extended POSIX regular
expression to match.
-O<orderfile>
Control the order in which files appear in the output. This
overrides the diff.orderFile configuration variable (see git-
config(1)). To cancel diff.orderFile, use -O/dev/null.
The output order is determined by the order of glob patterns in
<orderfile>. All files with pathnames that match the first pattern
are output first, all files with pathnames that match the second
pattern (but not the first) are output next, and so on. All files
with pathnames that do not match any pattern are output last, as if
there was an implicit match-all pattern at the end of the file. If
multiple pathnames have the same rank (they match the same pattern
but no earlier patterns), their output order relative to each other
is the normal order.
<orderfile> is parsed as follows:
o Blank lines are ignored, so they can be used as separators for
readability.
o Lines starting with a hash ("#") are ignored, so they can be
used for comments. Add a backslash ("\") to the beginning of
the pattern if it starts with a hash.
o Each other line contains a single pattern.
Patterns have the same syntax and semantics as patterns used for
fnmatch(3) without the FNM_PATHNAME flag, except a pathname also
matches a pattern if removing any number of the final pathname
components matches the pattern. For example, the pattern "foo*bar"
matches "fooasdfbar" and "foo/bar/baz/asdf" but not "foobarx".
--skip-to=<file>, --rotate-to=<file>
Discard the files before the named <file> from the output (i.e.
skip to), or move them to the end of the output (i.e. rotate to).
These options were invented primarily for the use of the git
difftool command, and may not be very useful otherwise.
-R
Swap two inputs; that is, show differences from index or on-disk
file to tree contents.
--relative[=<path>], --no-relative
When run from a subdirectory of the project, it can be told to
exclude changes outside the directory and show pathnames relative
to it with this option. When you are not in a subdirectory (e.g. in
a bare repository), you can name which subdirectory to make the
output relative to by giving a <path> as an argument.
--no-relative can be used to countermand both diff.relative config
option and previous --relative.
-a, --text
Treat all files as text.
--ignore-cr-at-eol
Ignore carriage-return at the end of line when doing a comparison.
--ignore-space-at-eol
Ignore changes in whitespace at EOL.
-b, --ignore-space-change
Ignore changes in amount of whitespace. This ignores whitespace at
line end, and considers all other sequences of one or more
whitespace characters to be equivalent.
-w, --ignore-all-space
Ignore whitespace when comparing lines. This ignores differences
even if one line has whitespace where the other line has none.
--ignore-blank-lines
Ignore changes whose lines are all blank.
-I<regex>, --ignore-matching-lines=<regex>
Ignore changes whose all lines match <regex>. This option may be
specified more than once.
--inter-hunk-context=<lines>
Show the context between diff hunks, up to the specified number of
lines, thereby fusing hunks that are close to each other. Defaults
to diff.interHunkContext or 0 if the config option is unset.
-W, --function-context
Show whole function as context lines for each change. The function
names are determined in the same way as git diff works out patch
hunk headers (see Defining a custom hunk-header in
gitattributes(5)).
--ext-diff
Allow an external diff helper to be executed. If you set an
external diff driver with gitattributes(5), you need to use this
option with git-log(1) and friends.
--no-ext-diff
Disallow external diff drivers.
--textconv, --no-textconv
Allow (or disallow) external text conversion filters to be run when
comparing binary files. See gitattributes(5) for details. Because
textconv filters are typically a one-way conversion, the resulting
diff is suitable for human consumption, but cannot be applied. For
this reason, textconv filters are enabled by default only for git-
diff(1) and git-log(1), but not for git-format-patch(1) or diff
plumbing commands.
--ignore-submodules[=<when>]
Ignore changes to submodules in the diff generation. <when> can be
either "none", "untracked", "dirty" or "all", which is the default.
Using "none" will consider the submodule modified when it either
contains untracked or modified files or its HEAD differs from the
commit recorded in the superproject and can be used to override any
settings of the ignore option in git-config(1) or gitmodules(5).
When "untracked" is used submodules are not considered dirty when
they only contain untracked content (but they are still scanned for
modified content). Using "dirty" ignores all changes to the work
tree of submodules, only changes to the commits stored in the
superproject are shown (this was the behavior until 1.7.0). Using
"all" hides all changes to submodules.
--src-prefix=<prefix>
Show the given source prefix instead of "a/".
--dst-prefix=<prefix>
Show the given destination prefix instead of "b/".
--no-prefix
Do not show any source or destination prefix.
--default-prefix
Use the default source and destination prefixes ("a/" and "b/").
This is usually the default already, but may be used to override
config such as diff.noprefix.
--line-prefix=<prefix>
Prepend an additional prefix to every line of output.
--ita-invisible-in-index
By default entries added by "git add -N" appear as an existing
empty file in "git diff" and a new file in "git diff --cached".
This option makes the entry appear as a new file in "git diff" and
non-existent in "git diff --cached". This option could be reverted
with --ita-visible-in-index. Both options are experimental and
could be removed in future.
For more detailed explanation on these common options, see also
gitdiffcore(7).
GENERATING PATCH TEXT WITH -P
Running git-diff(1), git-log(1), git-show(1), git-diff-index(1), git-
diff-tree(1), or git-diff-files(1) with the -p option produces patch
text. You can customize the creation of patch text via the
GIT_EXTERNAL_DIFF and the GIT_DIFF_OPTS environment variables (see
git(1)), and the diff attribute (see gitattributes(5)).
What the -p option produces is slightly different from the traditional
diff format:
1. It is preceded by a "git diff" header that looks like this:
diff --git a/file1 b/file2
The a/ and b/ filenames are the same unless rename/copy is
involved. Especially, even for a creation or a deletion, /dev/null
is not used in place of the a/ or b/ filenames.
When a rename/copy is involved, file1 and file2 show the name of
the source file of the rename/copy and the name of the file that
the rename/copy produces, respectively.
2. It is followed by one or more extended header lines:
old mode <mode>
new mode <mode>
deleted file mode <mode>
new file mode <mode>
copy from <path>
copy to <path>
rename from <path>
rename to <path>
similarity index <number>
dissimilarity index <number>
index <hash>..<hash> <mode>
File modes are printed as 6-digit octal numbers including the file
type and file permission bits.
Path names in extended headers do not include the a/ and b/
prefixes.
The similarity index is the percentage of unchanged lines, and the
dissimilarity index is the percentage of changed lines. It is a
rounded down integer, followed by a percent sign. The similarity
index value of 100% is thus reserved for two equal files, while
100% dissimilarity means that no line from the old file made it
into the new one.
The index line includes the blob object names before and after the
change. The <mode> is included if the file mode does not change;
otherwise, separate lines indicate the old and the new mode.
3. Pathnames with "unusual" characters are quoted as explained for the
configuration variable core.quotePath (see git-config(1)).
4. All the file1 files in the output refer to files before the commit,
and all the file2 files refer to files after the commit. It is
incorrect to apply each change to each file sequentially. For
example, this patch will swap a and b:
diff --git a/a b/b
rename from a
rename to b
diff --git a/b b/a
rename from b
rename to a
5. Hunk headers mention the name of the function to which the hunk
applies. See "Defining a custom hunk-header" in gitattributes(5)
for details of how to tailor this to specific languages.
COMBINED DIFF FORMAT
Any diff-generating command can take the -c or --cc option to produce a
combined diff when showing a merge. This is the default format when
showing merges with git-diff(1) or git-show(1). Note also that you can
give suitable --diff-merges option to any of these commands to force
generation of diffs in a specific format.
A "combined diff" format looks like this:
diff --combined describe.c
index fabadb8,cc95eb0..4866510
--- a/describe.c
+++ b/describe.c
@@@ -98,20 -98,12 +98,20 @@@
return (a_date > b_date) ? -1 : (a_date == b_date) ? 0 : 1;
}
- static void describe(char *arg)
-static void describe(struct commit *cmit, int last_one)
++static void describe(char *arg, int last_one)
{
+ unsigned char sha1[20];
+ struct commit *cmit;
struct commit_list *list;
static int initialized = 0;
struct commit_name *n;
+ if (get_sha1(arg, sha1) < 0)
+ usage(describe_usage);
+ cmit = lookup_commit_reference(sha1);
+ if (!cmit)
+ usage(describe_usage);
+
if (!initialized) {
initialized = 1;
for_each_ref(get_name);
1. It is preceded by a "git diff" header, that looks like this (when
the -c option is used):
diff --combined file
or like this (when the --cc option is used):
diff --cc file
2. It is followed by one or more extended header lines (this example
shows a merge with two parents):
index <hash>,<hash>..<hash>
mode <mode>,<mode>..<mode>
new file mode <mode>
deleted file mode <mode>,<mode>
The mode <mode>,<mode>..<mode> line appears only if at least one of
the <mode> is different from the rest. Extended headers with
information about detected content movement (renames and copying
detection) are designed to work with the diff of two <tree-ish> and
are not used by combined diff format.
3. It is followed by a two-line from-file/to-file header:
--- a/file
+++ b/file
Similar to the two-line header for the traditional unified diff
format, /dev/null is used to signal created or deleted files.
However, if the --combined-all-paths option is provided, instead of
a two-line from-file/to-file, you get an N+1 line from-file/to-file
header, where N is the number of parents in the merge commit:
--- a/file
--- a/file
--- a/file
+++ b/file
This extended format can be useful if rename or copy detection is
active, to allow you to see the original name of the file in
different parents.
4. Chunk header format is modified to prevent people from accidentally
feeding it to patch -p1. Combined diff format was created for
review of merge commit changes, and was not meant to be applied.
The change is similar to the change in the extended index header:
@@@ <from-file-range> <from-file-range> <to-file-range> @@@
There are (number of parents + 1) @ characters in the chunk header
for combined diff format.
Unlike the traditional unified diff format, which shows two files A and
B with a single column that has - (minus -- appears in A but removed in
B), + (plus -- missing in A but added to B), or " " (space --
unchanged) prefix, this format compares two or more files file1,
file2,... with one file X, and shows how X differs from each of fileN.
One column for each of fileN is prepended to the output line to note
how X's line is different from it.
A - character in the column N means that the line appears in fileN but
it does not appear in the result. A + character in the column N means
that the line appears in the result, and fileN does not have that line
(in other words, the line was added, from the point of view of that
parent).
In the above example output, the function signature was changed from
both files (hence two - removals from both file1 and file2, plus ++ to
mean one line that was added does not appear in either file1 or file2).
Also, eight other lines are the same from file1 but do not appear in
file2 (hence prefixed with +).
When shown by git diff-tree -c, it compares the parents of a merge
commit with the merge result (i.e. file1..fileN are the parents). When
shown by git diff-files -c, it compares the two unresolved merge
parents with the working tree file (i.e. file1 is stage 2 aka "our
version", file2 is stage 3 aka "their version").
EXAMPLES
git show v1.0.0
Shows the tag v1.0.0, along with the object the tag points at.
git show v1.0.0^{tree}
Shows the tree pointed to by the tag v1.0.0.
git show -s --format=%s v1.0.0^{commit}
Shows the subject of the commit pointed to by the tag v1.0.0.
git show next~10:Documentation/README
Shows the contents of the file Documentation/README as they were
current in the 10th last commit of the branch next.
git show master:Makefile master:t/Makefile
Concatenates the contents of said Makefiles in the head of the
branch master.
DISCUSSION
Git is to some extent character encoding agnostic.
o The contents of the blob objects are uninterpreted sequences of
bytes. There is no encoding translation at the core level.
o Path names are encoded in UTF-8 normalization form C. This applies
to tree objects, the index file, ref names, as well as path names
in command line arguments, environment variables and config files
(.git/config (see git-config(1)), gitignore(5), gitattributes(5)
and gitmodules(5)).
Note that Git at the core level treats path names simply as
sequences of non-NUL bytes, there are no path name encoding
conversions (except on Mac and Windows). Therefore, using non-ASCII
path names will mostly work even on platforms and file systems that
use legacy extended ASCII encodings. However, repositories created
on such systems will not work properly on UTF-8-based systems (e.g.
Linux, Mac, Windows) and vice versa. Additionally, many Git-based
tools simply assume path names to be UTF-8 and will fail to display
other encodings correctly.
o Commit log messages are typically encoded in UTF-8, but other
extended ASCII encodings are also supported. This includes
ISO-8859-x, CP125x and many others, but not UTF-16/32, EBCDIC and
CJK multi-byte encodings (GBK, Shift-JIS, Big5, EUC-x, CP9xx etc.).
Although we encourage that the commit log messages are encoded in
UTF-8, both the core and Git Porcelain are designed not to force UTF-8
on projects. If all participants of a particular project find it more
convenient to use legacy encodings, Git does not forbid it. However,
there are a few things to keep in mind.
1. git commit and git commit-tree issue a warning if the commit log
message given to it does not look like a valid UTF-8 string, unless
you explicitly say your project uses a legacy encoding. The way to
say this is to have i18n.commitEncoding in .git/config file, like
this:
[i18n]
commitEncoding = ISO-8859-1
Commit objects created with the above setting record the value of
i18n.commitEncoding in their encoding header. This is to help other
people who look at them later. Lack of this header implies that the
commit log message is encoded in UTF-8.
2. git log, git show, git blame and friends look at the encoding
header of a commit object, and try to re-code the log message into
UTF-8 unless otherwise specified. You can specify the desired
output encoding with i18n.logOutputEncoding in .git/config file,
like this:
[i18n]
logOutputEncoding = ISO-8859-1
If you do not have this configuration variable, the value of
i18n.commitEncoding is used instead.
Note that we deliberately chose not to re-code the commit log message
when a commit is made to force UTF-8 at the commit object level,
because re-coding to UTF-8 is not necessarily a reversible operation.
GIT
Part of the git(1) suite
Git 2.43.5 05/31/2024 GIT-SHOW(1)
Linux-Distributionen
Huschi als Linux-Admin